Letter From Birmingham Jail and Revolution Theatre in Civil Rights the Black Arts Movement

Radical African-American social, political & cultural movement in the United States

This article is well-nigh a social movement. For the slogan, meet Black Power.

Black Power movement
Role of the counterculture of the 1960s
Black Panther at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, June 1970
Appointment	1966–1980s
Location	United States
Caused by	Perceived failures of the civil rights movement Turn towards militancy
Resulted in	Worldwide spread of Black Ability ideals Institution of Black-operated services and businesses Decline past the 1980s

The Black Power motility was a social movement motivated past a desire for safe and self-sufficiency that was non available inside redlined African American neighborhoods. Black Ability activists founded black-owned bookstores, food cooperatives, farms, media, printing presses, schools, clinics and ambulance services.^{[1] [ii] [3] [4] [5] [half dozen]} The international impact of the movement includes the Black Ability Revolution in Trinidad and Tobago.^[7]

By the late 1960s, Black Power came to stand for the need for more immediate violent action to counter American white supremacy. Most of these ideas were influenced past Malcolm X's criticism of Martin Luther King Jr.'s peaceful protest methods. The 1965 bump-off of Malcolm X, coupled with the urban riots of 1964 and 1965, ignited the movement.^[8] New organizations that supported Black Power philosophies ranging from the adoption of socialism by certain sects of the movement to black nationalism, including the Black Panther Political party (BPP), grew to prominence.^[7]

While black American thinkers such as Robert F. Williams and Malcolm Ten influenced the early Black Power movement, the Black Panther Political party and its views are widely seen as the cornerstone. It was influenced past philosophies such equally pan-Africanism, black nationalism and socialism, equally well as contemporary events including the Cuban Revolution and the decolonization of Africa.^[9]

History [edit]

Origins [edit]

The starting time popular employ of the term "Black Ability" as a social and racial slogan was by Stokely Carmichael (later on known as Kwame Ture) and Willie Ricks (later known every bit Mukasa Dada), both organizers and spokespeople for the Student Irenic Analogous Committee. On June sixteen, 1966, in a voice communication in Greenwood, Mississippi, during the March Against Fear, Carmichael led the marchers in a chant for black ability that was televised nationally.^[x]

The arrangement Nation of Islam began every bit a blackness nationalist movement in the 1930s, inspiring after groups.^[eleven] Malcolm X is largely credited with the group's dramatic increment in membership between the early on 1950s and early on 1960s (from 500 to 25,000 by i estimate; from 1,200 to fifty,000 or 75,000 past another).^{[12] [13]} In March 1964, Malcolm X left the Nation due to disagreements with Elijah Muhammad; amid other things, he cited his interest in working with ceremonious rights leaders, saying that Muhammad had prevented him from doing so.^[14] Later, Malcolm 10 also said Muhammad had engaged in extramarital affairs with young Nation secretaries‍—‌a serious violation of the group'southward teachings.^[fifteen] On February 21, 1965, Malcolm X was shot and killed while speaking at the Audubon Ballroom in Washington Heights, New York Metropolis.^[16] Three Nation members were convicted of assassinating him. Despite this, there has long been speculation and suspicion of government involvement. The forty police officers at the scene were instructed to "stand down" by their commanding officers while the shooting took place.^{[17] [18] [19] [20] [21]}

Later the Watts riots in Los Angeles in 1965, the Pupil Nonviolent Analogous Committee decided to cutting ties with the mainstream civil rights move. They argued that blacks needed to build power of their ain, rather than seek accommodations from the power structure in place. SNCC migrated from a philosophy of nonviolence to one of greater militancy later the mid-1960s.^[22] The arrangement established ties with radical groups such every bit the Students for a Autonomous Society.

In belatedly October 1966, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party. In formulating a new politics, they drew on their experiences working with a variety of Blackness Ability organizations.^[23]

Escalation in the late 1960s [edit]

Black Panther Party members marching and conveying flags.

The Black Panther Party initially utilized open up-bear gun laws to protect political party members and local black communities from law enforcement. Party members as well recorded incidents of police brutality by distantly following police cars around neighborhoods.^[24] Numbers grew slightly starting in Feb 1967, when the party provided an armed escort at the San Francisco airport for Betty Shabazz, Malcolm X'southward widow and keynote speaker at a conference held in his award.^[25] By 1967, the SNCC began to fall autonomously due to policy disputes in its leadership, and many members left for the Black Panthers.^[26] Throughout 1967, the Panthers staged rallies and disrupted the California State Assembly with armed marchers.^[27] In 1956 the FBI developed COINTELPRO to investigate black nationalist groups and others.^{[28] [29]} Past 1969, the Black Panthers and their allies had become primary COINTELPRO targets, singled out in 233 of the 295 authorized "black nationalist" COINTELPRO actions. In 1968, the Democracy of New Afrika was founded, a separatist group seeking a blackness country in the southern United States, only to dissolve by the early 1970s.

Past 1968, many Blackness Panther leaders had been arrested, including founder Huey Newton for the murder of a police officer (Newton's prosecution was eventually dismissed), withal membership surged. Black Panthers afterward engaged the constabulary in a firefight in a Los Angeles gas station. In the same year, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated, creating nationwide riots, the widest wave of social unrest since the American Civil War.^[30] In Cleveland, Ohio, the "Republic of New Great socialist people's libyan arab jamahiriya" engaged the police in the Glenville shootout, which was followed past rioting.^[31] The yr also marked the start of the White Panther Party, a group of whites dedicated to the crusade of the Black Panthers. Founders Pun Plamondon and John Sinclair were arrested, but eventually freed, in connexion to the bombing of a Fundamental Intelligence Agency function in Ann Arbor, Michigan that September.^[32]

Past 1969, the Black Panthers began purging members due to fear of law enforcement infiltration, engaged in multiple gunfights with constabulary and one with a black nationalist organization. The Panthers connected their "Free Huey" campaign internationally. In the spirit of rising militancy, the League of Revolutionary Blackness Workers was formed in Detroit, which supported labor rights and black liberation.

Tiptop in the early 1970s [edit]

In 1970 the Honorary Prime number Government minister of the Black Panther Political party, Stokely Carmichael, traveled to various countries to discuss methods to resist "American imperialism".^[33] In Trinidad, the blackness ability motility had escalated into the Black Power Revolution in which many Afro-Trinidadians forced the regime of Trinidad to give into reforms. Later many Panthers visited People's democratic republic of algeria to talk over Pan-Africanism and anti-imperialism. In the aforementioned year sometime Black Panthers formed the Black Liberation Army to continue a violent revolution rather than the party'south new reform movements.^[34] On October 22, 1970, the Black Liberation Army is believed to have planted a bomb in St. Brendan's Church in San Francisco while information technology was full of mourners attending the funeral of San Francisco police officer Harold Hamilton, who had been killed in the line of duty while responding to a bank robbery. The flop was detonated, but no one in the church suffered serious injuries.^[35]

In 1971, several Panther officials fled the U.S. due to police concerns. This was the simply active year of the Blackness Revolutionary Set on Squad, a group that bombed the New York Southward African consular office in protest of apartheid. On September xx information technology placed bombs at the UN Missions of Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa) and the Republic of Malawi.^[36] In February 1971, ideological splits within the Black Panther Political party between leaders Newton and Eldridge Cleaver led to two factions within the party; the conflict turned violent and four people were killed in a series of assassinations.^[37] On May 21, 1971, 5 Black Liberation Army members participated in the shootings of ii New York City police officers, Joseph Piagentini and Waverly Jones. Those brought to trial for the shootings include Anthony Bottom (also known as Jalil Muntaqim), Albert Washington, Francisco Torres, Gabriel Torres, and Herman Bong.^{[ citation needed ]}

During the jail sentence of White Panther John Sinclair a "Free John" concert took place, including John Lennon and Stevie Wonder. Sinclair was released two days later on. On August 29, three BLA members murdered San Francisco police sergeant John Victor Young at his police station. Two days later, the San Francisco Chronicle received a alphabetic character signed by the BLA claiming responsibleness for the attack.^{[ commendation needed ]} Late in the year Huey Newton visited China for meetings on Maoist theory and anti-imperialism.^[38] Blackness Power icon George Jackson attempted to escape from prison in Baronial, killing vii hostages only to exist killed himself.^[39] Jackson's death triggered the Attica Prison insurgence which was afterwards ended in a bloody siege. On Nov 3, Officer James R. Greene of the Atlanta Police Department was shot and killed in his patrol van at a gas station by Black Liberation Army members.^[40]

1972 was the year Newton close downwardly many Black Panther capacity and held a party coming together in Oakland, California. On January 27, the Black Liberation Regular army assassinated police officers Gregory Foster and Rocco Laurie in New York Urban center. After the killings, a note sent to regime portrayed the murders as a retaliation for the prisoner deaths during 1971 Attica prison house riot. To date no arrests take been made.^{[41] [ citation needed ]} On July 31, v armed BLA members hijacked Delta Air Lines Flight 841, somewhen collecting a ransom of $ane million and diverting the plane, after passengers were released, to Algeria. The regime there seized the bribe just allowed the group to flee. Four were somewhen defenseless by French authorities in Paris, where they were convicted of various crimes, but one – George Wright – remained a avoiding until September 26, 2011, when he was captured in Portugal.^[42] After being accused of murdering a prostitute in 1974, Huey Newton fled to Cuba. Elaine Dark-brown became party leader and embarked on an ballot entrada.^[43]

De-escalation in the belatedly 1970s [edit]

In the late 1970s a rebel group named after the killed prisoner formed the George Jackson Brigade. From March 1975 to December 1977, the Brigade robbed at least seven banks and detonated about 20 piping bombs – mainly targeting regime buildings, electrical power facilities, Safeway stores, and companies accused of racism. In 1977, Newton returned from exile in Cuba. Presently later, Elaine Brown resigned from the party and fled to Los Angeles.^[44] The Party fell autonomously, leaving only a few members.^[45]

Move adult in Philadelphia in 1972 every bit the "Christian Move for Life", a communal living group based on Black Liberation principles. When police force raided their house in 1978, a firefight broke out; during the shootout, one officer was killed, vii other police officers, 5 firefighters, 3 Movement members, and 3 bystanders were too injured.^[46]

In some other loftier-profile incident of the Blackness Liberation Army, Assata Shakur, Zayd Shakur and Sundiata Acoli were said to have opened fire on state troopers in New Jersey after being pulled over for a cleaved taillight. Zayd Shakur and state trooper Werner Foerster were both killed during the exchange. Following her capture, Assata Shakur was tried in six different criminal trials. Co-ordinate to Shakur, she was browbeaten and tortured during her incarceration in a number of unlike federal and state prisons. The charges ranged from kidnapping to assault and battery to banking concern robbery. Assata Shakur was found guilty of the murder of both Foerster and her companion Zayd Shakur, but escaped prison in 1979 and eventually fled to Cuba and received political asylum. Acoli was bedevilled of killing Foerster and sentenced to life in prison.

In 1978 a group of Blackness Liberation Regular army and Weather Underground members formed the May 19th Communist Organization, or M19CO. Information technology as well included members of the Black Panthers and the Republic of New Africa.^{[47] [48]} In 1979 three M19CO members walked into the company's heart at the Clinton Correctional Facility for Women about Clinton, New Jersey. They took ii guards hostage and freed Shakur. Several months later M19CO arranged for the escape of William Morales, a member of Puerto Rican separatist grouping Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional Puertorriqueña from Bellevue Hospital in New York City, where he was recovering after a bomb he was building exploded in his hands.^[47]

Pass up in the 1980s [edit]

Over the 1980s the Black Power motion continued despite a refuse in its popularity and organization memberships. The Black Liberation Army was agile in the Us until at least 1981 when a Brinks truck robbery, conducted with support from former Weather Cloak-and-dagger members Kathy Boudin and David Gilbert, left a guard and two police officers dead. Boudin and Gilbert, along with several BLA members, were afterward arrested.^[49] M19CO engaged in a bombing campaign in the 1980s. They targeted a series of regime and commercial buildings, including the U.Southward. Senate. On Nov iii, 1984, two members of the M19CO, Susan Rosenberg and Timothy Blunk, were arrested at a mini-warehouse they had rented in Ruddy Loma, New Jersey. Law recovered more than than 100 blasting caps, about 200 sticks of dynamite, more than than 100 cartridges of gel explosive, and 24 bags of blasting agent from the warehouse. The M19CO brotherhood's last bombing was on February 23, 1985, at the Policemen's Chivalrous Association in New York City.

Movement had relocated to West Philadelphia after the earlier shootout. On May 13, 1985, the constabulary, along with city managing director Leo Brooks, arrived with arrest warrants and attempted to articulate the Movement building and arrest the indicted MOVE members.^[50] This led to an armed collision with constabulary,^[51] who lobbed tear gas canisters at the building. Motion members shot at the police force, who returned fire with automatic weapons.^[52] The police and so bombed the house, killing several adults and children, and causing a large fire that destroyed the improve part of a urban center cake.^{[52] [fifty] [53]}

In 1989, well into the waning years of the movement, the New Black Panther Party formed. In the aforementioned year on Baronial 22, Huey P. Newton was fatally shot outside by 24-twelvemonth-old Black Guerilla Family unit member Tyrone Robinson.^[54]

Characteristics [edit]

Pedagogy [edit]

The fifth point of the Blackness Panther Party's Ten-Betoken Program chosen for "education for our people that exposes the truthful nature of this decadent American society. We want education that teaches u.s. our true history and our role in the nowadays mean solar day society." This sentiment was echoed in many of the other Black Power organizations; the inadequacy of black educational activity had earlier been remarked on past W. East. B. Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, and Carter G. Woodson.

With this properties, Stokely Carmichael brought political education into his piece of work with SNCC in the rural South. This included go-out-the-vote campaigns^[55] and political literacy. Bobby Seale and Huey Newton used education to address the lack of identity in the black customs. Seale had worked with youth in an subsequently-school programme before starting the Panthers. Through this new pedagogy and identity building, they believed they could empower black Americans to claim their freedom.

Media [edit]

Just as Blackness Power activists focused on community control of schools and politics, the motion took a major interest in creating and decision-making its own media institutions. Nigh famously, the Black Panther Party produced the Black Panther newspaper, which proved to exist one of the BPP's most influential tools for disseminating its message and recruiting new members.

WAFR was launched in September 1971 as the commencement public, community-based black radio station. The Durham, Due north Carolina, station circulate until 1976, but influenced afterward activist radio stations including WPFW in Washington, D.C. and WRFG in Atlanta.^[56]

Legacy [edit]

After the 1970s the Black Power movement saw a decline, but not an end. In the yr 1998 the Blackness Radical Congress was founded, with debatable effects. The Black Riders Liberation Party was created past Bloods and Crips gang members as an attempt to recreate the Black Panther Party in 1996. The group has spread, creating capacity in cities across the United States, and frequently staging paramilitary marches.^[57] During the 2008 presidential election New Black Panther Political party members were accused of voter intimidation at a polling station in a predominantly blackness, Democratic voting district of Philadelphia.^[58] After the upsetting killing of Trayvon Martin black power paramilitaries formed, including the Huey P. Newton Gun Club, African American Defense League, and the New Black Liberation Militia, all staging armed marches and military machine preparation.^{[ citation needed ]}

Some have compared the modernistic motion Black Lives Matter to the Black Power move, noting its similarities.^[59]

Meet likewise [edit]

• Black mecca
• Black nationalism
• Blackness Panther Party
• Black supremacy
• Blackness separatism
• Chicano Movement
• History of the socialist movement in the Us
• New Left
• Black Arts Movement
• Protests of 1968
• Red Power movement

References [edit]

1. ^ Davis, Joshua Clark (January 28, 2017). "Black-Owned Bookstores: Anchors of the Black Power Movement – AAIHS". Aaihs.org . Retrieved March x, 2017.
2. ^ Konadu, Kwasi (January one, 2009). A View from the E: Black Cultural Nationalism and Education in New York Metropolis. Syracuse University Press. ISBN9780815651017.
3. ^ Klehr, Harvey (1988-01-01). Far Left of Center: The American Radical Left Today. Transaction Publishers. ISBN9781412823432.
4. ^ "Black Power Boob tube | Duke Academy Press". Dukeupress.edu . Retrieved March xi, 2017.
5. ^ "The Black Ability motion and its schools | Cornell Chronicle". News.cornell.edu . Retrieved March 11, 2017.
6. ^ Nelson, Alondra (January ane, 2011). Trunk and Soul: The Black Panther Party and the Fight Against Medical Discrimination. U of Minnesota Press. ISBN9781452933221.
7. ^ ^{a b} "Blackness Power Motility". Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved January 14, 2018.
8. ^ "Malcolm X: From Nation of Islam to Blackness Power Movement". world wide web.aljazeera.com . Retrieved 2020-04-24 .
9. ^ Komozi Woodard, "Rethinking the Black Power Movement", Africana Age.
10. ^ Hasan Jeffries (2010). Encarmine Lowndes: Ceremonious Rights and Black Power in Alabama'southward Black Belt. NYU Press. p. 187. ISBN9780814743065.
11. ^ Muhammad, Tynetta. "Nation of Islam History". Retrieved Apr 17, 2014.
12. ^ Lomax, Louis E. (1963). When the Word Is Given: A Report on Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, and the Black Muslim World. Cleveland: World Publishing. pp. 15–16. OCLC 1071204. Estimates of the Black Muslim membership vary from a quarter of a million down to fifty thousand. Available evidence indicates that about i hundred thousand Negroes have joined the movement at ane fourth dimension or another, simply few objective observers believe that the Black Muslims tin can muster more than than twenty or 20-five thousand active temple people.
13. ^ Marable, Manning (2011). Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention. New York: Viking. p. 123. ISBN978-0-670-02220-5.
14. ^ Handler, M. S. (March 9, 1964). "Malcolm Ten Splits with Muhammad". The New York Times . Retrieved September 22, 2017.
15. ^ Perry, Bruce (1991). Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America. Barrytown, N.Y.: Station Hill. pp. 230–234. ISBN978-0-88268-103-0.
16. ^ "Malcolm X Assassinated". History.com. 2009. Retrieved September 20, 2017.
17. ^ Simon, John (2005). "Malcolm Ten-His Legacy". Monthly Review: 25–45. doi:10.14452/MR-056-09-2005-02_3.
18. ^ Ali, Zaheer (February seven, 2015). "What Really Happened to Malcolm Ten?". CNN.
19. ^ Buckley, Thomas (March xi, 1966). "Malcolm Ten Jury Finds three Guilty". The New York Times . Retrieved October 2, 2014.
20. ^ Roth, Jack (Apr 15, 1966). "3 Get Life Terms in Malcolm Example". The New York Times . Retrieved Oct 2, 2014.
21. ^ "Quotes: Half a century later on his death, Malcolm X speaks". USA TODAY . Retrieved July 16, 2018.
22. ^ "Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)". Encyclopædia Britannica Online . Retrieved May half dozen, 2015.
23. ^ Seale, 1970, part I; Newton, 1973, parts ii–3; Flower and Martin, 2013, chapter ane; Murch, 2010, part II and chapter 5.
24. ^ Bloom and Martin, 45.
25. ^ Blackness Panther Paper, May 15, 1967, p. 3; Bloom and Martin, 71–72.
26. ^ C. Gerald Fraser, "SNCC Has Lost Much of Its Power to Black Panthers", The New York Times news service (Eugene Register-Guard), October nine, 1968.
27. ^ Pearson, 129.
28. ^ "COINTELPRO | United States government programme | Britannica". www.britannica.com . Retrieved 2022-04-07 .
29. ^ Stohl, 249.
30. ^ Peter B. Levy Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine, Baltimore '68, p. 6.
31. ^ "Glenville Shootout – The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History". The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. A joint try past Case Western University and the Western Reserve Historical Gild. March 27, 1998. Retrieved February 19, 2013.
32. ^ Zbrozek, C. (October 24, 2006). "The bombing of the A2 CIA office". Michigan Daily . Retrieved Apr 22, 2013.
33. ^ Joseph, Peniel E. Waiting 'Til the Midnight Hr: A Narrative History of Black Ability in America, Henry Holt and Company, 2007.
34. ^ Marie-Agnès Combesque, "Caged panthers", Le Monde diplomatique, 2005.
35. ^ Van Derbeken and Lagos. "Ex-militants charged in Southward.F. police force officer'south '71 slaying at station", San Francisco Chronicle (January 23, 2007).
36. ^ Edward F. Mickolaus, Transnational Terrorism: a chronology of events, Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 1980, p. 258.
37. ^ Donald Cox, "Split in the Party", New Political Science, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1999.
38. ^ Revolutionary Suicide Penguin classics Delux Edition" page 352
39. ^ "Attempted Escape At San Quentin Leaves 6 Dead". Bangor Daily News. Bangor, Maine. UPI. August 23, 1971. pp. one, 3. Retrieved October 23, 2010.
40. ^ "Fulton Co. District Chaser Report". Fultonda.org. Archived from the original on July xv, 2016. Retrieved October 25, 2017.
41. ^ Burrough, Bryan. "The Untold Story Behind New York'south Most Brutal Cop Killings". Politico Magazine. Archived from the original on Apr 24, 2015. Retrieved 2019-06-04 .
42. ^ "Man who escaped from N.J. prison 41 years agone is captured in Portugal". NJ.com. September 26, 2011. Retrieved September 26, 2011.
43. ^ Perkins, Margo V. Autobiography As Activism: 3 Black Women of the Sixties, Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2000, p. v.
44. ^ Brown, 444–50.
45. ^ Turner, Wallace (December xiv, 1977). "Coast Inquiries Selection Panthers As Target; Murder, Attempted Murders and Financing of Poverty Programs Under Oakland Investigation". The New York Times.
46. ^ "Nose to Nose: Philadelphia confronts a cult". Time. August 14, 1978. Archived from the original on May 25, 2007. Retrieved May 20, 2007.
47. ^ ^{a b} LEFT-Wing EXTREMISM: The Current Threat Prepared for U.S. Department of Energy Office of Safeguards and Security (PDF). Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge Institute for Scientific discipline and Education: Eye for Human Reliability Studies ORISE 01-0439. 2001. p. i. Retrieved December 27, 2009.
48. ^ National Consortium for the Written report of Terrorism and the Responses to Terrorism, DHS (March i, 2008). "Terrorist Organization Contour: May 19 Communist Lodge". National Consortium for the Report of Terrorism and the Responses to Terrorism. Archived from the original on June seven, 2010. Retrieved December 27, 2009.
49. ^ CourtTV Crime Library, Ambush: The Brinks Robbery of 1981 Archived Feb 9, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
50. ^ ^{a b} Shapiro, Michael J. (June 17, 2010). The Time of the City: Politics, Philosophy and Genre. Routledge. p. 108. ISBN9781136977879.
51. ^ "1985 bombing in Philadelphia still unsettled". Usatoday.com . Retrieved Oct 25, 2017.
52. ^ ^{a b} Stevens, William Thou. (May 14, 1985). "Police Driblet Bomb on Radicals' Abode in Philadelphia". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 12, 2012. Retrieved Baronial 31, 2012.
53. ^ Trippett, Frank (May 27, 1985). "It Looks Only Similar a State of war Zone". Time. Archived from the original on December iii, 2007. Retrieved May 14, 2013.
54. ^ "Doubtable Admits Shooting Newton, Law Say". The New York Times. Associated Press. August 27, 1989. Retrieved May 8, 2013. The police said belatedly Fri that an admitted drug dealer had acknowledged killing Huey P. Newton, co-founder of the Black Panther Political party
55. ^ Ture, Kwame; Hamilton, Charles 5. (1992). Black Power: the Politics of Liberation in America. New York: Vintage Books. p. 114. ISBN0679743138. OCLC 26096713.
56. ^ "WAFR - Media and the Motility". mediaandthemovement.unc.edu . Retrieved October 25, 2017.
57. ^ "Workers Globe Nov. 25, 1999: Blackness Riders evidence resistance is possible". Workers.org. Archived from the original on May 13, 2019. Retrieved Oct 25, 2017.
58. ^ "Republicans Push For New Black Panther Hearing". CBS News, July 27, 2010.
59. ^ "From Black Power to Black Lives Matter". Wearemany.org . Retrieved October 25, 2017.

Bibliography [edit]

• Konadu, Kwasi (2009). A View from the East: Black Cultural Nationalism and Education in New York City. Syracuse University Press. ISBN9780815651017.
• Ogbar, Jeffrey O.G. Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity (2019), excerpt and a text search

Further reading [edit]

• Brian Meeks, Radical Caribbean: From Black Power to Abu Bakr.
• James A. Geschwender. Class, Race, and Worker Insurgency: The League of Revolutionary Black Workers. New York: Cambridge University Printing, 1977.
• Austin, Curtis J. (2006). Up Against the Wall: Violence in the Making and Unmaking of the Black Panther Party. Academy of Arkansas Press. ISBN 1-55728-827-v
• McLellan, Vin, and Paul Avery. The Voices of Guns: The Definitive and Dramatic Story of the Twenty-two-month Career of the Symbionese Liberation Army. New York: Putnam, 1977.

External links [edit]

• Media and the Movement: Journalism, Civil Rights and Black Power in the American South

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_power_movement

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